Essay Instructions: The argument is a mode of writing intended to win readers? agreement with an assertion by engaging their powers of reasoning. It is often persuasive, intended to influence people?s actions by engaging their beliefs and feelings. Having said all that, we can see that the ability to advance sound and compelling arguments is an important skill to develop. We can use argumentation to make a point during class discussion, persuade a friend to lend us money, or talk an employer into giving us a day off with pay. Becoming skilled in clear, logical reasoning can also help us see through the sometimes faulty arguments in advertisements, newspaper articles, political speeches, and the other persuasive appeals we see and hear every day.
For this writing assignment, you will be asked to choose a topic on a controversial issue, take a position, and defend that position with a series of solid reasons. Argumentation advances a controversial point, one that at least some of your readers will not be inclined to accept. Because of this, it is important to remember not to state your thesis as fact. British philosopher Stephen Toulmin has divided a typical argument into three parts:
1. The DATA: the evidence to prove something,
2. The CLAIM (thesis): what you are proving with the data,
3. The WARRANT: the assumption or principle that connects the data to the claim.
Any clear, explicit argument has to have all three parts. Toulmin?s own example of such an argument is this: (Claim/thesis) Harry is a British subject ?(Warrant) a man born in Bermuda will be a British Subject? (Data) Harry was born in Bermuda.
Example:
? CLAIM (thesis)--The present system of distributing food stamps is a dismal failure, a less effective way to help the needy than other possible ways.
? WARRANT (These are the reasons for holding the opinion that you state in your claim/thesis.) No one is happy to receive charity. We need to encourage people to quit the welfare rolls; we need to make sure that government aid goes only to the deserving. More effective than giving out food stamps would be to help untrained young people learn job skills; to help single mothers with small children to obtain child care, freeing them for the job market; and to enlarge and improve our state employment counseling and job-placement services. The problem of poverty will be helped only if more people will find jobs and become self-sufficient.
? DATA (evidence/support)--Over the past five years, assistance in the form of food stamps has had the effect of increasing the number of people on welfare instead of reducing it. Despite this help, 95 percent of long-term recipients remain below the poverty line today.
A GUIDE FOR WRITING THE ARGUMENT
Keep in mind the following suggestions and information as you draft your argument:
1. Use tactful, courteous language: Don?t anger your reader by referring to them or their opinions in rude or belittling terms. Don?t use general or sweeping terms like ?Everybody knows . . .? ?People with any intelligence agree . . .? or ?Those people . . .?
2. Point out common ground: Find points on which people from both sides of the argument can agree.
3. Acknowledge differing viewpoints: Acknowledging other viewpoints helps you spot flaws in the opposing position, as well as your own argument. It gives the impression you are willing to look at all sides of the argument, and readers will be more likely to consider your point of view if you indicate a willingness to consider theirs. Admit when an opposing point is a good one, but make it clear that you still believe your argument to be stronger overall.
4. Rebut differing viewpoints: A rebuttal or counterargument points out problems with an opposing view, to show where an opponent?s argument breaks down.
Types Of Evidence Used In Supporting Arguments
1. Emotional strategies focus on values, attitudes, emotions and beliefs that are central to any decision-making process.
2. Statistics (or data warrant-claim reasoning) draws on several kinds of statements reasonable people usually make when they argue (statements of data, claims, and warrants), highlighting a way of relating these statements in order to convince readers.
3. The opinions of experts support your ideas with their expertise and the weight of their reputation. Just remember that many experts disagree, so choose your supporting expert carefully.
Organizing Your Argument
1. Inductive reasoning moves from support to a claim. It begins with the facts, opinion, and examples needed to argue a point and moves to a claim. The writer makes certain observations, finds patterns in these observations, and then makes a claim about those observations. Scientific and technological arguments proceed this way.
2. Deductive reasoning moves from a claim to support. (use this one please) It presents a claim/thesis and supports it with particular facts, opinions, and examples. Humanities, politics and law use deductive reasoning to present their arguments.
TOPIC SELECTION
For this paper I would like you to use at least three outside sources to support your thesis statement. Use one or two essays from our textbook, and/or academic sources from our academic library. I will not accept any other sources.
I want to remind you that topics that rely on a particular religious belief are not acceptable. Likewise, topics that rely on purely emotional belief must be avoided. These include abortion, gun control, and partisan political issues. These topic guidelines apply to all assignments during the quarter.
I reserve the right to approve all topics, so check with me if you have any doubts. The key is to be specific and detailed as you describe the topic, while remaining rational and sensitive in your evaluation.
When choosing a topic remember to select an issue that is academic and controversial, one that you are likely to find support for in our library without too much difficulty.
EXAMPLE TOPICS Overpopulation in America,
homelessness,
domestic violence,
environmental issues (dams vs. salmon),
gender issues (gay marriage),
male issues (shared child custody),
TV and violence, issues of race (hate crimes),
family issues (mixed-race adoption).
How you develop these topics will give you focus and narrow your topic. You are not limited to these topics, so if you have an interest in another area please explore and develop those ideas and see if they will work for you. If you have questions or problems, please see me as soon as possible, so you can spend the bulk of your time drafting.
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
? MLA formatting
? At least 3 outside sources from our library (ProQuest, Infotrac, Ebsco, CQ Researcher, Oppossing Viewpoints, etc), cited in-text and as bibliographic entry
? See rubric for more detailed and specific requirements of writing
A FEW THINGS TO REMEMBER!!!
? Don?t wait until the last minute!
? Don?t use topics that are predictable or superficial, such as why to buy Pepsi over Coke.
? Do use your critical thinking skills.
? Do spend time drafting and revising for a complete final draft.
? Do write to those who may not agree with you. That is the audience you are trying to convince.
CLAIM/DATA/WARRANT
The claim (Also called a proposition) answers the question ?What are you trying to prove?? It may appear as the thesis statement of your essay, although in some arguments it may not be stated directly.
There are three principal kinds of claim: claims of fact, value or policy.
Claims of fact assert that a condition has existed, exists, or will exist and are based on facts or data that the audience will accept as being objectively verifiable:
The present cocaine epidemic is not unique. From 1885 to the 1920s, cocaine
was as widely used as it is today.
Claims of value attempt to prove that some things are more or less desirable than others. They express approval or disapproval of standards of taste and morality.
Football is one of the dehumanizing experiences a person can face.
?Dave Meggyesy
Claims of policy assert that specific policies should be instituted as solutions to problems. The expression should, must, or ought to usually appears in the statement.
Our first step must be to immediately establish and advertise drastic policies
designed to bring our own population under control. ?Paul Ehrlich, biologist
The support consists of the materials used by the arguer to convince an audience that his or her claim is sound. These materials include evidence and motivational appeals. The evidence or data consist of facts, statistics, and testimony from experts.
The warrant is an inference or an assumption, a belief or principle that is taken for granted. A warrant is a guarantee of reliability; in argument it guarantees the soundness of the relationship between the support and the claim. It allows the reader to make the connection between the support and the claim.
Examples:
CLAIM: Adoption of a vegetarian diet leads to healthier and longer life.
SUPPORT: The authors of Becoming a Vegetarian Family say so.
WARRANT: The authors of Becoming a Vegetarian Family are reliable sources of
information on diet.
CLAIM: laws making marijuana illegal should be repealed.
SUPPORT: People should have the right to use any substance they wish.
WARRANT: No laws should prevent citizens from exercising their rights.
These elements of argument will all appear in your introduction paragraph as a way to introduce the issue and start the conversation. It prepares readers for the development of the argument and helps them decide whether or not they will keep reading!
Example:
? CLAIM (thesis)--The present system of distributing food stamps is a dismal failure, a less effective way to help the needy than other possible ways.
? WARRANT (These are the reasons for holding the opinion that you state in your claim/thesis.) No one is happy to receive charity. We need to encourage people to quit the welfare rolls; we need to make sure that government aid goes only to the deserving. More effective than giving out food stamps would be to help untrained young people learn job skills; to help single mothers with small children to obtain child care, freeing them for the job market; and to enlarge and improve our state employment counseling and job-placement services. The problem of poverty will be helped only if more people will find jobs and become self-sufficient.
? DATA (evidence/support)--Over the past five years, assistance in the form of food stamps has had the effect of increasing the number of people on welfare instead of reducing it. Despite this help, 95 percent of long-term recipients remain below the poverty line today.
Logical Fallacies: Avoiding Common Errors
Examining lines of reasoning.
Your reader may feel that your argument?s reasoning is not valid, then he or she is entitled to raise a challenge because if the argument is flawed, the validity of your claim may be in doubt.
Following are seven types of fallacies, or flaws. The first four specifically address the lines of reasoning you will use to make arguments from generalization, causation, sign, and analogy.
1) Faulty Generalization: Support offered on the basis of insufficient data.
Left-handed people are clumsy because all three lefties of my acquaintance are clumsy. (Based on opinion is not sufficient evidence.)
2) Faulty Cause and Effect: The fact that one event occurs before another does not prove that the first event caused the second event. (Latin: post hoc, a short form of Post hoc, ergo propter hoc?? after this, therefore because of this).
The increase in explicit violence on television is making the crime rate soar. (Perhaps, but no evidence is provided to support this claim.)
3) Faulty Analogy: Analogies should enhance, not obscure, understanding. Use appropriate examples to clarify, not confuse your reader.
Raising the national speed limit is like offering free cocktails at a meeting of recovering alcoholics. (What is the connection? An addiction to speeding is the same as an addiction to drinking?)
4) Either/Or Reasoning: When an author preselects two possibilities from among many and then attempts to force a choice.
On the matter of abortion, there are two position: either we support a human?s right to life, or we allow women to have complete control over their bodies. (Why can?t someone endorse protecting life while also supporting the right to choose what happens to one?s body?)
5) Ad Homenim: The personal attack. Challenging the person presenting a view rather than the view itself. ?Attacking the man, not the issue.?
Of course Walt Smith would support a bill to provide financial assistance to farmers he owns several farms. Besides, how can he be a good senator after cheating on his wife? (What are Smith?s ideas and reactions to the issues of financial assistance to farmers?)
6) The Begged Question: Assuming the validity of a point that the writer should be proving by argument is begging the question. This makes definition of terms a necessity.
Most people these days are trying to be more physically fit; obviously, they are afraid of getting old. (On what basis are these stated as facts?)
Revising the Argument and Peer review
After you have completed the first draft of the paper, set it aside for a while (if possible) (make this possible!). When you review it, try to do so as critically as you would if it were not your own work. Ask yourself these questions:
1. Have I provided persuasive details to support my argument?
2. Have I acknowledged the opposing point of view, showing that I am a reasonable person willing to consider other arguments/
3. Is my language tactful and courteous? Have I avoided insulting anyone who doesn't agree with me?
4. Have I used transition words to help readers follow my train of thought/
5. Does my final supporting paragraph include a strong argument for my position?
6. Have I provided a concluding paragraph to summarize my argument or add a final persuasive touch?
As you revise your essay through added drafts, continue to refer to this list until you can answer "yes" to each question. Then be sure to check the next-to-final draft of the paper for the sentence skills listed on the inside front cover.
? Fragments
? Run-ons
? Verb forms
? Subject/Verb agreement
? Faulty parallelism
? PN shifts and/or agreement
? Adjectives and adverbs used correctly
? Capital letters
? Punctuation: apost '
? colon :
? semicolon ;
? quotations ""
? dash --
? comma ,
? hyphen -
? parenthesis ( )
? Correct paper format
? Wordiness
? Sentence variety
? Spelling
? Careless errors
Grading Rubric for the Argument
CRITERIA EXCELLENT
A (90-100) 3.5-4.0 GOOD
B (80-90) 2.5-3.4 NEEDS IMPROVEMENT
C (70-80) 1.5-2.4
D (60-70) 0.7-1.4 UNACCEPTABLE
F (below 60) 0.0-0.6)
Points by column 20-18 17-15 14-12 11--
Thesis Statement and Topic There is a clear and concise thesis statement, and it is well supported with facts, statistics, expert opinions, and examples. All elements of the paper support the thesis statement. The topic is sufficiently narrow to do the topic justice in the required length. There is a clear thesis statement, but the discussion in the paper does not always support the thesis and may not even be relevant. The topic is narrow, but the focus could be more specific. The order of topics in paragraphs does not follow a pattern that logically develops the argument. It is difficult to discern the thesis statement, which makes reading the paper challenging since the reader does not always know how the ideas in the paper lead to any conclusion. The topic is much too broad to come to any conclusions in the required length. No apparent thesis and no logical progression of ideas.
Content,
Support, Development,
&
Evidence, Logic
The evidence is recent and fair. The writer acknowledges opposing views but maintains his/her perspective. The writer has avoided common errors in reasoning. The writer take into account the readers? probable views. The evidence is plentiful but not current. The writer does not consistently acknowledge other views and/or may have occasional problems with logical fallacies. The support does not always support and develop the topic. The evidence is not current. The writer fails to acknowledge other views and/or may have some problems with logical fallacies. The support is not adequate to develop the topic.
Topic is not fully developed. Content does not meet college level expectations.
Organization Paper is well organized and easy to understand. It is clear which side is being argued for and the logical progression of support is adequate and meaningful. The organization is generally good, but some parts of the logic seem out of order. It follows a plan, but needs to be clearer. The organization is
unclear. The logic is faulty in several areas. The paper is disorganized to the
extent that it prevents understanding of the content.
Grammar and Diction, Tone, and Style The work has been thoroughly spell-checked and proofread. There are a few spelling and grammatical errors. There is more than one
spelling or grammatical
error per page. There are frequent
misspelled words and
serious grammatical
errors, indicating that
time was not taken to
spell-check and proofread.
The student has successfully made the transition from an informal diction to a college level diction. The style is creative and flows from idea to ides in well developed paragraphs. The tone is appropriate for the topic and audience. Parts of the paper use proper diction, while slang, colloquial language, and second person POV are prevalent and/or present. The style is someone what bias by opinion. The tone is not consistent. There is little if any difference between the
paper and an oral telling
of the story. The argument is based solely on opinion. The tone needs development. The language used in the paper has little chance of being understood by someone outside of the student?s peer group. The style and tone are inappropriate and inadequate.
Assignment Introduction shows proof of critical thinking and is effective. Conclusion leaves the reader with a sense of completeness. The paper leads readers through the argument step by step, building to the strongest ideas and frequently connecting the evidence to the central claim. The argument is developed using deductive reasoning. Paper incorporates critical thinking in that all components and development criteria for the argument are met, but are forced upon the reader. The outside source does not adequately support the thesis. The approach to the topic needs more in-depth critical thinking applied. There is no clear outside support or one is used but not in a meaningful and supportive manner. The paper fails to meet the requirements of the assignment.
Total
This rubric has been developed using Mary E. Huba and Jan E Freed?s Learner-Centered Assessment on College Campuses.
P.S I am the international student.
