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Essay Instructions: 1. The paper must conatin information about Pythagoras (the person)
2. The paper must contain information about the history of the Pythagorean Theorem.
3. The END of the paper must relate how the Pythagorean Theorem can be used to determine the area of SIMILAR POLYGONS.
4. The paper must be APA style 5th edition.

Essay Instructions: Write a brief biographic sketch on Socrates and Pythagoras. Outline some of the foundational, philosophical teachings of that individual. Also explore how that individual impacted philosophical though throughout the years.

Essay Instructions: The following questions should be typed single spaced 12 pt font times new roman
1. How were Plato's theory of eternal forms/ Ideas and his belief in absolute truth influenced by Pythagoras? Is it legitimate to call Plato a Pythagorean? (2)How were Plato's theory of eternal forms/ Ideas and his belief in absolute truth influenced(negatively) by both Heraclitus & Protagoras?(3)What are the similarties and differences between Plato's philosophy and the philosophies of Asia? (4) Do you stand with the Platonists or the Sophs? Is there an absolute truth or all truths merely relative?

Essay Instructions: this is the sources the professor gave me and the instruction I order 6 pages because it has to be 3 pages one single space in the paragraphs and a double space between paragraphs .
this is the tittle The Dark Age & the Archaic Age
this is the two questions that I have to answer make sure that you put question numer 1 and answer like and then question number 2 and the answer



1. Tell me what you thought about watching the lectures on video.

2. Select one topic (such as the Spartans) and write why you liked it so much.

THE ARCHAIC

AGE (800-479 bc)



TIMELINE

The Minoan Civilization 3150-1300 bc

The Theran Civilization 3150-1628 bc

The Mycenaean Civilization 1900-1100 bc

The Dark Ages 1100-800 bc

The Archaic Age 800-479 bc

The Hellenic Age 479-323 bc

The Hellenistic Age 323-31 bc



In 800 bc, the Greek people returned to history?s center stage by transitioning from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. A new age of literacy, politics, warfare, and science began. The Greeks would achieve supremacy when Alexander the Great defeated the mighty Persian Empire at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 bc.

LANGUAGE

The Sumerians invented writing; the Hebrews invented the alphabet and the Phoenicians improved it. At the beginning of the Archaic Age, literacy made a comeback as the Archaic Greeks added vowels to twenty-four letters of the alphabet. They also created upper and lower case letters and began writing on papyrus with pens and ink instead of tablets and chisels. These innovations provided an efficient means of recording business transactions, history, and scientific writings.

UNIFICATION

A Common Story

As the Archaic Greeks emerged from the Dark Ages, they stopped living in feuding clans and unified into a new kind of city-state, the polis. Each polis was a hub of artistic, political, and commercial activity. Unification of the numerous rival clans occurred when the entities agreed upon a common story or narrative for their origin. Amazingly, these clans wrote a story about the diffusion of their people.

The First Family

The feuding clans agreed that they all descended from a man named Hellen, thus they were all Hellenes (or Greeks). For the very first time, the people who resided in Greece were known as Greeks. They called their land/country Hellas or Greece.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Hellen had three sons, Dorus, Xuthus, and Aeolus. In turn, Xuthus had two sons, Ion and Achaeus. The Greeks divided their country into four geographical regions, naming them after Hellen?s descendents: the Dorians (for Dorus), the Aeolians (for Aeolus), the Ionians (for Ion), and the Achaeans (for Achaeus). The Dorian and Aeolian Greeks resided in Greece while the Ionian Greeks lived in Asia Minor.

COLONIZATION

The Mycenaean survivors during the Dark Ages had already begun migrating to Asia Minor. But between 750-600 bc, a migratory explosion occurred, not only in Asia Minor, but also to Spain, southern France, southern Italy, North Africa, Thrace, Russia, and to the borders of the Black Sea. Each Greek colony on these foreign soils was called Magna Graecia, or greater Greece.

Ionia, part of Hellas in Asia Minor, was the most significant migration. Colonists created a new city (polis) that was independent from their mother city (metropolis). With a high degree of literacy, the colonized Greeks began a commercial revolution in trade, business, and commerce that created a new class of people?the middle class.

These colonized Greeks became ?orientalized,? participating in an international cultural exchange of ideas and culture. The Archaic Greek culture proliferated throughout the world as their city-states evolved into economic and commercial centers.

THE GREEK CITY-STATE

The Polis

Once the family clans of the Dark Ages began to migrate to Asia Minor and beyond, they gathered into large autonomous communities. Such a community was called a synoikismos (a gathering together) and was the forerunner of one of the greatest political innovations, the urban community known as the polis or city-state. A polis incorporated the city and the surrounding land. The largest city-state, Sparta, controlled 3,000 square miles.

The Greek polis became the center of social, political, artistic, and religious activities. Citizenship was based on one?s family heritage and gave each man the opportunity to progress intellectually, spiritually, and economically. Later during the Hellenistic Age, people could become citizens without providing proof of ancestry.

THE ACROPOLIS

The archetypal model for each new polis began with an acropolis, a fortified hill where the true political and religious power of each city resided. A temple on the top of the acropolis housed the patron god or goddess for that particular polis. The well-being of each city-state depended on the worship of its patron deity through sacrifices, ceremonies, and processions.

DID YOU KNOW IT: The primary reason for fortifying the hill (the acropolis) was to protect the city?s treasury of gold and silver ? also located inside the temple.

THE AGORA

Each polis had an agora, the marketplace and civic center where citizens bought all kinds of commodities, conducted legal matters, participated in religious activities in the numerous temples, attended theatrical performances in the amphitheater, and participated in athletic sporting events at the gymnasium.

FEDERALISM AND

PARTICULARISM

Smaller city-states incorporated into larger ones with each one creating and regulating their own particular socio-religio-political aspects under the threefold purpose of the polis ? justice, order, and peace. This created a fierce loyalty, called particularism, to one?s own polis. Unfortunately, particularism fostered a heated rivalry against other independent city-states. Cooperation between city-states is known as federalism.

GOVERNMENT

Greek Politics

Though civilizations developed political systems, the Archaic Greeks added a new element ? that of rational persuasion. The polis epitomized the development of a secure and prosperous life for the citizenry who manifested good moral behavior.

MONARCHY

The new governments of the Greek city-states resembled the family clan system in that an aristocrat was responsible for the values, religious practices, social checks, and political expediencies of the citizenry. This aristocrat, or Archon, was assisted by a council of elders and assembly of citizens called an ecclesia.

DID YOU KNOW IT: The free male citizens of a polis gathered together for a carefully choreographed ?table fellowship,? or symposium. At these meetings, the men ate, drank, sang, watched entertainment, discussed traditional values, and participated in rhetorical contests.
ARISTOCRACY

Over time, each polis evolved from rule by one Archon into a plurality of Archons. These Archons were very powerful and wealthy. Because they were also aristocratic (?the best?), power and the succession of power were inherited.

OLIGARCHY

Other male citizens wanted a share of the power that was consolidated into a few families. A new form of government, an oligarchy or the rule of few, began replacing aristocratic rule. These oligarchies were made up of the wealthiest men in each polis.

TYRANNY

The oligarchies disenfranchised the poor who demanded that their voices be heard. Powerful and influential men, in support of the poor, created a new form of government, the tyranny. The tyrant championed the concerns and causes of the poor against that of a few aristocrats. Unfortunately, many tyrants turned against the people to pursue wealth and power.

DID YOU KNOW IT: The Greek Cypselus, the first tyrant in history, ruled the city-state of Corinth beginning in 650 bc.

DEMOCARCY

Weary of the tyrants? brutality, the people rebelled and created a democracy, the rule of common people. However, Greek democracy benefitted only free, land-owning men. Women and slaves did not participate in the democratic government.

THE MILITARY

The Archaic Greeks unified around a common story, colonized other lands, created a new kind of city, the polis, and created a new kind of government, a democracy. All that remained was a new kind of military to protect their city-states. The new infantry soldier, the hoplite, was well-armed and well-equipped to battle decisively and victoriously. These fighting soldiers conducted their battles organized in a phalanx, a rectangular formation of shoulder-to-shoulder hoplites. Their fierce commitment to their formation amounted to ?shock combat.?

ARCHAIC GREEK

RELIGION

The Archaic Greeks were a very religious people who believed that the gods and goddesses were involved in their daily lives. Each polis had its own religious ceremonies, votive offerings, libations, worship centers, and some variation of the Greek pantheon. Natural phenomena such as lightning, earthquakes, and floods, were seen as coming from the gods. Archaic Greek religion enhanced and benefitted the citizenry, but the gods weren?t seen as providing solutions to human problems. Literary works prescribed correct conduct toward the gods, not the gods? answers to prayer.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Instead of prayer, the Greeks turned to art and literature to discover the best way to live and govern themselves. Authors, such as Homer, mastered the gods by creating stories that punished the corrupt human nature of mankind. These stories balanced the extremes of polar opposites, for example, good and bad, logic and excessive emotionalism, beauty and ugliness, arrogance and humility.

The Archaic Greeks divided their pantheon into three categories: 1) the Muses, nine female deities of inspiration and creativity; 2) the Olympians who dwelt on Mt. Olympus; and 3) the Chthonian Deities who lived on the earth.

The Muses

Originally, there was one Muse; later there were three. These evolved into the nine goddesses of inspiration and creativity of literature, science, and the arts. The Muses resided on Mt. Helicon. They were the offspring of Zeus and the Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory. Each one inspired men to be creative in a different area. The nine Muses and their creative specialties are:

Calliope epic poetry

Clio history

Erato erotic poetry and mime

Euterpe lyric poetry and music

Melpomene tragedy

Polyhymnia sacred hymn

Terpsichore dance and song

Thalia comedy

Urania astronomy



The Olympian

Gods/Goddesses

The deities from the Minoans evolved until Homer reinvented them in 800 bc. Zeus, the long-dead Minoan cave-dwelling hermit, became an immortal being who lived on Mt. Olympus.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Greek religion was a mixture of ideas derived from the earlier Aegean cultures. The Olympic deities, the gods of the aristocrats, were treacherous, irrational, violent, vengeful, lustful, unpredictable, and incapable of keeping their noses out of the affairs of men.

THE MAJOR OLYMPIANS

The major Olympian gods and goddesses are:

Zeus the sky god

Hera the Earth-Mother, the guardian of marriage and childbirth, sister and wife of Zeus,

Poseidon god of all water, earthquakes, horses

Hades god of the underworld

Apollo god of destruction and healing, music and culture, of youth, and of the sun and light; represents intellectual beauty

Artemis goddess of the moon, the hunt, and animals

Ares god of war

Aphrodite goddess of love and beauty

Hephaestus god of craftspeople and smiths

Athena goddess of wisdom

Hermes god of travelers, a messenger and a trickster

Hestia goddess of the hearth

Their followers offered the Olympian gods and goddesses prayers and gifts in exchange for favors.

HUBRIS

The Archaic Greeks recognized the gods, but didn?t confront them. They thought it best to hope that the gods didn?t notice them or take an interest in their affairs. That seemed the best strategy for making it through life. They believed that when they died, their souls went to Hades, a gloomy land of shadows. Heroes were granted a different fate ? admittance into the beautiful Elysian Fields.

The Chthonian

Gods/Goddesses

The Chthonian deities were the gods and goddesses of agriculture and harvest time. Demeter, goddess of grain and agriculture, and Dionysus, the grape god, were the primary Chthonian deities.

DEMETER

Demeter, sister of Zeus and goddess of the harvest and fertility, represented grains. One day, her beautiful daughter Persephone was kidnapped by Hades, lord of the underworld. Demeter roamed the earth looking for Persephone. During her search, the grain didn?t grow. Zeus ordered Hades to release Persephone back to Demeter. When Persephone left the underworld, she ate some pomegranate seeds that Hades gave her. He knew that anyone who ate anything from the underworld could never leave. Zeus negotiated a compromise. Persephone lives with Demeter during the spring and summer months, but spends the rest of the year with Hades in the underworld.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Crops grow when Persephone is home with Demeter. The world grows cold and nothing grows in the winter because of Demeter?s grief that her daughter is with Hades.

DIONYSUS

Dionysus was the god of wine and drunkenness, of nature in the raw, of tragedy and comedy, sexual excess, and madness. A later group of women who worshipped him, called the Maenads or ?raving ones,? covered themselves in the hot blood of a bull. They engaged in drunken and sexual debauchery, driving themselves into an ecstatic frenzy by ripping live animals to pieces with their teeth. These violent women also practiced bloodletting and mutilation.

Divination

and Oracles

DIVINATION

The Archaic Greeks practiced divination, the art of predicting the future, such as:

haruspicy (predicting the future by reading an animal?s viscera),
dreams,
augury (interpreting what birds do),
cleromancy (drawing of lots),
necromancy (communicating with the dead), and
lecanomancy (staring into water).
THE ORACLE OF DELPHI

The most famous and sought-after fortune-teller was the Oracle of Delphi. A Pythia, a female prophetess older than 50 years of age, babbled incoherent answers to the questions posed to her. Afterward, she gave the interpretation in an understood language. Those visiting the Oracle brought gifts to bribe the Pythia into giving them a good fortune. With this wealth, the Oracle became a world center for banking and commerce.

DID YOU KNOW IT: The Greeks alleged that Delphi was the center (?omphalos,? literally navel) of the earth.

THE ARACHIC

CITY-STATE

Two of the Archaic Greek city-states were diametrically different from one another: Sparta and Athens. Comparing and contrasting these two great cities provide an understanding of the polis system without individually investigating all of the many Greek city-states.

Sparta

Sparta, located in Laconia in the southeastern Greek Peloponnesus, was an aggressive and militaristic warrior city-state that prized bravery, discipline, loyalty, and great battles. Weaklings were murdered. In 725 bc, Sparta invaded and conquered the city-states of the region of Messenia. The Spartans enslaved the Messenians and stripped them of their identities by giving them a new name ? Helots. The Messenians were forced to work on the Spartan farms or become household servants.

DID YOU KNOW IT: The Spartan lawgiver Lycurgus created ?the art of war,? a formal system of rigid military training. The resulting military city-state kept the Helots, who outnumbered the Spartans ten to one, under Spartan control.

GOVERNMENT

Sparta was ruled by two kings, a council of 28 elders (age sixty and older) called the gerousia, and five judges who oversaw the gerousia called the ephors. The Spartan people were made up of three classes: 1) the Spartan warriors; 2) the middle class of merchants, artisans, and businessmen; and 3) the slaves/Helots.

THE SPARTAN MALE

An elder examined each newborn male for defects, deformities, or illnesses. If any were found, the child was left in a valley to die of exposure, was eaten by animals, or become a Helot slave. Only the healthy and physically fit were permitted to exist.

Even though a child spent his first seven years with his mother a wet-nurse provided most of that child?s care and upbringing. Little affection was shown the child. At age seven, the child left home and became members in the Agoge, the military school where boys trained to become disciplined, loyal, and brave warriors. The boys were grouped by age into brotherhoods called Agelai or flocks. They stayed at the military school until they were eighteen.

At the military school, the boys learned how to run, jump, throw the discus, swim, and hunt. During survival skills training, they learned how to steal without being caught, participated in hand-to-hand combats, were tied to trees and whipped in contests to see who cried out first, and were inflicted with pain that increased over the years to build tolerance. They were virtually starved, wore no shoes, and slept on hard beds.

DID YOU KNOW IT: The Spartans ate a dish of pork boiled in blood, salt, and vinegar and served in a black broth. A visitor who ate this meal remarked that he now understood why the Spartan warriors were not afraid to die!

Reading, writing, dancing, and music were also part of the Spartan curriculum. Any eighteen-year-old boy who survived the training had a final exam, which was to go to Messenia and kill a Helot without being caught. The successful graduate became a cadet and, at the age of twenty, a warrior. Those who failed became merchants, and were not given citizenship.

A Spartan warrior could marry at the age of twenty, but he didn?t live with his wife and rarely saw her except to get her pregnant. When he became thirty years old, the traditional age for boys to become men in the ancient world, the warrior could live with his wife and children. Once he reached age sixty (twice a man), he could retire from the military and would perhaps be elected to the council of elders.

DID YOU KNOW IT: A famous story says that a hungry Spartan boy pilfered a live fox. But Spartan trainers approached him so he concealed the live fox under his shirt. When confronted, instead of admitting to the theft, he uttered no pain as the fox bit into his stomach.

THE SPARTAN FEMALE

Newborn girls were also checked for defects and sicknesses. Healthy girls lived and went to a female military school at the age of seven. Because the girls needed to be strong to give birth to strong babies, they were taught fighting skills, wrestling, gymnastics, throwing, running, and jumping.

Girls completed their training at age eighteen and could then marry. Those who failed the training became part of the middle class and had no political rights. Specially educated girls became courtesans, the companions of wealthy men who could financially provide for them.

Most of the Greek city-states required women to spend most of their lives inside their homes. But not Sparta. Women with citizenship enjoyed a great deal of freedom, especially the younger ones whose husbands didn?t live at home.

Athens

THE ATHENIAN MALE

Athenian parents provided private education for their sons. From ages seven to fourteen, the boys attended an elementary school where they learned reading, writing, mathematics, playing the lyre, and singing. Homer?s The Iliad and The Odyssey were their primary literature. The boys also participated in sports, including gymnastics, wrestling, boxing, running, and throwing the discus and javelin. When the boys reached fourteen, those whose parents could afford the expense were attached to a teacher and taught science, geometry, rhetoric, and music.

WOMEN AND SLAVES

Women

Women were considered ?defective men,? invisible, silent, and without any rights. They remained at home unless accompanied by a male relative. They received no formal education and had no legal or economic rights. There were a few aristocratic women who were the exceptions.

DID YOU KNOW IT: The Athenians did not believe that women could think rationally or logically and portrayed them as necessary evils only good for producing children for the city-state. Athenian women had three primary roles: menstruation, pregnancy, or lactation.

Women took care of the household, including the children and servants, and did the weaving and cooking. A few women were religious priestesses.

Slaves

Slaves were nothing more than chattel, tools with no rights, no former identities, and socially dead. They could be bought, sold, or bequeathed, and their masters determined the value of their lives. Manumission, a set of procedures for freeing slaves, was rarely used.

ATHENIAN GOVERNMENT

The Archons

The Areopagus, a council of nine archons, made the political and religious decisions. The archons were aristocrats annually chosen by the Areopagus to rule.

A powerful Athenian family, the Alcamaeonids, sold men and their families into slavery who didn?t pay back loans. Incensed at the arbitrary dictates of the archons and the powerful, the people demanded that laws be written into a legal code. Draco was appointed as lawgiver in 621 bc, but he and his laws were harsh and merciless.

Solon

In 594 bc, Solon (639-559 bc) was the only man elected as an archon. He believed that people brought about evil, but wicked leaders only brought about eunomia, social disorder. Preserving the privileges of the aristocrats, establishing laws to protect common people from the aristocrats, and allowing free men of the lower classes to participate in government could prevent Eunomia.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Solon intended reforms to fix, not replace, the existing system. He repelled Draco?s ?Draconian? laws, forgave debts, and those sold into slavery by the Alcamaeonid family were bought back to Athens.

Pisistratus

After Solon?s death, the Alcamaeonid family returned to their prior practices and violated the Solonian Constitution. Pisistratus, Solon?s cousin, seized control of Athens in 560 bc. As Athens? first tyrant, he accomplished many reforms, including:

reinforcing Solon?s laws,
expelling the Alcamaeonid family,
placing his own followers in government positions,
instituting judges for the common man,
creating the first library in Athens,
allowing farmers to keep their profits instead of being exploited,
creating and funding the Great Panathenaic Games,
beginning a beautification program to make Athens ?the jewel of the world,? and
creating Athens first golden age.
Hippias

After Pisistratus? death, his son Hippias ruled Athens. Unlike his father,

Hippias was ruthless, greedy, and a tyrant in the strictest sense of the word. The Alcamaeonid family manipulated the Oracle of Delphi into telling the Spartans to depose and exile Hippias from Athens. The Alcamaeonid family and the military might of the Spartans expelled Hippias in 510 bc. The deposed ruler went to Persia.

Isagoras

With Hippias in exile, two men vied for power: Cleisthenes, a leading aristocrat from the Alcamaeonid family, and his most bitter rival, Isagoras. Isagoras was made sole archon. He called upon the Spartans to counter Cleisthenes by once again expelling the Alcamaeonid family from Athens. After Isagoras repelled Solon?s laws, the people rebelled and brought the Alcamaeonid family back to Athens. Cleisthenes led the battle against the Spartans. After a conference called by the Spartans, their army and Isagoras left Athens.

Cleisthenes

Once Athens was free of Isagoras and the Spartans, Cleisthenes (570-507 BC) received a special commission to establish equal rights for all Athenian citizens. In 508 bc, Cleisthenes founded a new kind of government ? a democracy (demos/people and kratos/power) ? by establishing isonomia, or equal power. He put government in the middle, i.e., into the hands of the citizenry. The demos were free, land-owning male citizens of the ecclesia, or assembly.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Ostracism was instituted in 487 bc to exile, for ten years, anyone deemed dangerous to Athens. Citizens wrote the name of a person deemed to be a threat to Athens on a piece of broken pottery called ostraca.

ARCHAIC GREEK

CREATIVITY

The Greeks of the Archaic Age developed a variety of literary, artistic, and philosophical forms that exemplified human existence. They considered human creativity a gift from the Muses.

The Performing Arts

MUSIC

The Archaic Greeks believed that music and instruments came directly from the gods to the mythic Orpheus. Termander (700-650 bc), considered the first Archaic Greek musician, founded the first Greek music school. He played a cithara, a musical instrument with seven strings stretched over a tortoise shell. The aulos was a double-reed instrument like a modern day oboe. Other instruments were cymbals, drums, rattles, and castanets. The Archaic Greeks believed that music had healing properties, soothed one?s mind, and changed one?s behavior.

In 586 bc, Sacadas of Argos composed the first piece of program music for the Pythian Games at Delphi. The music was accompanied with the aulos.

DANCE

The purpose of Archaic Greek dance was to narrate a religious or social story. Because men and women didn?t attend the same festivals or rituals, men usually danced with men and women danced with women.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Dance was a part of the Athenian education. Socrates believed that the best dancers were the best at warfare. Spartan warriors were taught to dance as part of their rigid military training.

RHETORIC

Greek oratory or rhetoric, the art of persuasive eloquent speech, was the practical and essential soul of Greek culture and education. Two rhetoricians from Syracuse, Corax and Tisias, are credited as being the founders of Archaic Greek rhetoric. The ability to speak well was prized in business, industry, legal matters, political assemblies, the theater, and in common practical affairs. Rhetorical skill became the basis of secondary education in Western civilization. Integrity came both as a orator of words and as an achiever of actions.



The Literary Arts

HOMER: EPIC POETRY

Poetry was the premier literary art in antiquity and Homer, a blind bard from Smyrna (ca. 800 bc), was the Greeks? first great epic poet. The Greeks found their values in his enduring works, The Iliad and The Odyssey. These two adventure stories provided the standard lessons for Greek education.

The Iliad

The Iliad covers the last year of the war between the Mycenaean Greeks and the Trojans. For ten long years, the Greeks failed to break through the impenetrable walls of Troy. But Greek soldiers hid in a wooden horse, which the Trojans brought into their city. The Greeks snuck out of the horse at night, open the city?s gates for their companions, and destroyed Troy.



The Odyssey

The Odyssey is the tale of the Greek commander Odysseus? ten-year journey home following the battle of Troy. A Cyclops, a seductive witch, and a floating island delayed Odysseus? travels. After twenty years, he arrived home in time to kill the suitors who insisted his wife remarry.

HESIOD: ARCHAIC POETRY

Hesiod (700 bc) from Ascra, Asia Minor, wrote the epic Theogony, the Greeks? first cosmogony (origin of the universe) and catalogue of the gods and goddesses. Hesiod also wrote a didactic poem called Works and Days. This poem includes advice on honesty, working hard, farming, and sailing. Another theme of Hesiod is the world?s steady deterioration because of aristocratic pride and war. Myths and fables are woven through the poem.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Hesiod has been called Western Civilization?s first ?prophet of doom.?

ARCHILOCHUS: THE FIRST

SATIRIST IN GREEK HISTORY

Archilochus (ca. 675 bc) was the first Greek poet to use invective satire as he wrote about drinking, love, and war. The language in his lyric was fierce, mocking, and explicit. Many of his satirical victims were so shamed that they committed suicide. For Archilochus, writing was an emotional release.

SAPPHO: LYRIC

POETRY

Though Sappho (ca. 610-580 bc) is recognized as a fine lyric poet, she gains added distinction because she is a she. In a male-dominated world, her achievements are even more extraordinary. She wrote about her feelings for young aristocratic girls and invented the Sapphic Stanza, three lines with eleven syllables each and a fourth line with five syllables. Lyric poetry was always accompanied with the lyre.

Sappho, her husband, and her daughter Cleis lived on the Greek island of Lesbos where she established a school for young girls.

PINDAR: LYRIC

POETRY

Pindar, an aristocrat from the city-state of Thebes, is famous for his acclaimed metaphors. He wrote the Epinicia, forty-eight odes sung at the Olympic, the Pythian, the Isthmian, and the Nemean games. At later times, John Milton, Johann von Goethe, and William Wordsworth were influenced by Pindar?s writings.

DID YOU KNOW IT: The 2004 Olympic medals have the statue of Nike Paionios with ancient Olympia in the backdrop on one side. The other side features the eternal flame and the logo of the Athens Game. The flame and logo are framed by the first verse of Pindar?s eighth Olympic Hymn. It says:

O mother of gold-crowned contest, Olympia, queen of truth; where men that are diviners observing burnt-offerings make trial of Zeus the wielder of white lightnings, whether he hath any word concerning men who seek in their hearts to attain unto great prowess and a breathing-space from toil; for it is given in answer to the reverent prayers of men--do thou, O tree-clad precinct of Pisa by Alpheos, receive this triumph and the carrying of the crown.
AESOP: THE FABLE

Aesop (620-560 bc), a North African Greek slave who was given his freedom, pioneered the fable. Written to teach a moral lesson, a fable is an educational and rhetorical short story about animals and plants with human characteristics. One of the most popular of the more than six hundred Aesopic Tales is the ?The Tortoise and the Hare.?

The Visual Arts

The Archaic Greek artisans and craftsmen used metal, leather, stone, and wood in their works. The premier Greek profession of the visual arts was as a carpenter or stonemason. Carpenters built magnificent Greek temples, cities, and life-sized statues.

DO YOU DIG IT: One of the most amazing feats of carpentry during the Archaic Age was the 3,300-foot tunnel that brought water into the city of Samos. The engineer, Eupalinus of Megara, cut this tunnel in total darkness.

THE GREEK TEMPLE

In the seventh century bc, the creative Archaic Greeks introduced monumental post-beam-triangle construction to build their temples. Greek temples were first made of wood and later of stone. They housed the statues of the patron god or goddess of each city-state. The Doric Temple, the earliest style, is plain looking. The best examples are the Temple of Apollo at Corinth and the Temple of Hera in Southern Italy.

At a later date, the Greeks developed the more delicate Ionic Temple. These temples are known for their decorative embellishments.

The third, and final style is the Corinthian Temple. Its column is thinner than the Doric and Ionic columns and has an ornate capital, which is the top and crown of a column.

GREEK SCULPTURE

The Archaic Greeks were not the first sculptors. Previously, the Egyptians were the greatest sculptors in the world. But their sculptures had to be attached to a building, a tree, or to some other object to keep them from falling over. The arms and legs are abnormally straight with the fists compressed. The Archaic Greeks were the first to create freestanding sculptures, statues that stand on their own two feet.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Jewelry, weapons, and armor were placed on statues to make them look more life-like. Usually the arms, head, and torso were sculpted separately and then attached with dowels. This helped prevent breakage during shipping.

The Kouros

A male statue is called a kouros (plural kouroi) and epitomizes youth, muscularity, and the ideal of perfection. Since the kouros represented perfection, it was sculpted nude. The ?Kritios Boy,? with its slightly turned head, is the premier example of an Archaic kouros.

The Kore

A female statue is called a kore (plural korai) and idealizes youth. Because the Archaic Greeks believed women were ?defective men,? they sculpted them fully clothed. Who wanted to look at imperfection?

PAINTING: VASES

Originally decorated with geometrical circles and semicircles, the Greek vase was used as a grave marker. In time, other designs were added, such as triangles, diamonds, zigzags, checkers, and the maze meander pattern. Human silhouettes also became popular. The Dipylon Amphora is a notable example of a Grecian vase.

The Black-figure Style

During the sixth century bc, artists in the city-state of Corinth produced the black-figure style. A black glaze on a natural red clay background creates a two-dimensional effect. Details were highlighted with white, yellow, red, black, reddish-brown, and purplish-brown. Exekias (550-525 bc), who created ?Ajax and Achilles,? excelled at the black-figure style of painting.

The Red-figure Style

The red-figure style was introduced in the mid-sixth century bc. The background around the vase?s reddish-clay figures was painted black. Euphronios, who painted ?The Death of Sarpedon,? was a renowned red-figure painter.

ARCHAIC SCIENCE

THE NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS

The Archaic Greeks were the first civilization to separate their gods and goddesses from their science. A number of natural philosophers (scientists) began to question the existence of the deities and replaced them with natural law. For example, they no longer believed that Zeus hurled lightning bolts from his perch on Mount Olympus, but that something natural in the atmosphere cause lightning to appear.

The Natural Philosophers

THALES

The first Greek scientist was Thales (634-546 bc), an engineer from Miletus who began the ?Greek Enlightenment.? Named one of the ?Seven Sages? of Greece and the ?Father of Western Science,? Thales is credited for introducing abstract geometry. He taught that the universe was comprised of water and believed that solids, liquids, and gases are formed from water.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Plato related an incident about Thales as he was looking into the starry heavens while he was walking. Thales wasn?t paying any attention to where he was walking and fell into a ditch. A servant girl who approached to assist him said, ?How do you expect to understand what is going on up in the sky if you do not even see what is at your feet??

EMPEDOCLES

The materialist Empedocles of Acragas (ca. 495 bc) taught that fire, earth, air, and water, in fixed proportions, were the fundamental elements of the universe. Two of his works, On Nature and Purifications, have affected Western science. Centuries before Albert Einstein?s scientific achievements, Empedocles wrote that light is a particle and has a fixed speed.

ANAXAGOAS

Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (ca. 500 bc) introduced the idea of teleology, that the universe has a goal that is reached by causes. He believed that the nous (the mind or intelligence) was responsible for the order, design, and harmony in the universe. Anaxagoras taught Socrates, the teacher of both Plato and Aristotle.

PYTHAGORAS

Pythagoras (570-495 bc) of Samos, a vegetarian, was the first Greek pure mathematician. In 525 bc, Pythagoras journeyed to Babylon and was taught by the Magi (Wisemen). They provided him with much of his education. He believed that the universe was comprised of numbers, mathematical relationships (especially geometry) that explained the universe?s orderly system and its underlying morality, the ?harmony of the spheres.? He taught that the planets, stars, and earth were spheres that had circular orbits. Famous for his Pythagorean Theorem, this insightful thinker discovered the mathematical relationships between musical intervals. Nicholas Copernicus (ad 1473-1543) and Johann Kepler (ad 1571-1630) were both influenced by Pythagoras.

DID YOU KNOW IT: There are 400 various proofs of Pythagoras? theorem. President James Garfield, composed one original proof.

HERECLITUS

A Pre-Socratic natural philosopher from Ephesus, Heraclitus (ca. 535-475 bc) pioneered truth in constant change. He is quoted as saying, ?One cannot step into the same river twice.? In other words, nothing endures because everything is in a state of flux. His masterpiece was On Nature (peri phuseos). He has been given the titles of ?the Obscure One? and ?the Weeping Philosopher? because of his depressing view of life.

THE ARCHAIC GRECO-PERSIAN WARS

Athletics and Warfare

The Persian Wars caused the Greeks? transition from the Archaic Age to the Hellenic Age. Even though each Greek city-state was fiercely independent and autonomous, they joined forces to save themselves and their country from the world?s super-power, the Persians.

ATHLETICS

Greek athletics were a mirror image of warfare. The Greek word agon is used for both an ?athletic contest? and a ?battle.? Athletes died on the athletic field just like soldiers died on the battlefield. Athletics prepared soldiers for the severity of battle.

According to the teacher Hippias of Elis (ca. fifth century bc), the Olympic Games commenced in 776 bc to esteem Zeus. At that time, the Olympics were individual contests. The Pythian Games began in 582 bc to honor Apollo. In 580 bc, the Isthmian Games began in honor of Poseidon. A fourth contest, called the ?Crown Games? or the ?Nemean Games,? also honored Zeus.

All four of these major events, known as the Pan-Hellenic Games, lasted five days and included running, wrestling, chariot racing, and an ?anything goes? fight called the pancration. The prize event was the 200-meter race. Winners were awarded an olive leaf crown.

DID YOU KNOW IT: In 556 bc, Athens instituted the Panathenaic Games in honor of Athena. Women held their own Olympics, the Heraea in honor of Hera, where sixteen virgins competed in three age groups.

The city-states took good care of their athletes, treating them almost like gods. Poets wrote about them and sculptors created statues of them.

THE GYMNASIUM

Male citizens eighteen years and older could train in a gymnasium, ?a school for naked exercise.? Gymnasiums were training grounds for soldiers who were later trained as hoplite warriors.



The Army and Navy

THE PHALANX

The Archaic Greeks created a rectangular, close-ordered battle formation called a phalanx. The hoplite soldiers? main weapon was the spear. If the phalanx was not broken, it was an unstoppable killing machine.

THE WARSHIP

The Archaic naval fleet consisted of a 120-foot long warship called a trireme. Three banks of oars were on each side of the ship. Without their armada, the Greeks never would have defeated the mighty Persian Empire.

The Wars Against Persia

The Greeks colonized Asia Minor and established Ionia as part of Greece. But in 546 bc, the Persian King Cyrus the Great (600-529 bc), conquered Ionia.

The Persians annexed Ionia in 545 bc. When the Spartans heard of the occupation, they warned King Cyrus to stay away from Greece. Cyrus responded, ?Who are the Spartans?? In 514 BC, the Persian king sent the great General Mardonius to conquer the northern regions of Thrace and Macedonia, which lie directly north of Greece. Persia was now on the very doorstep of Greece.

In 502 bc, the island of Naxos revolted against Persian control and requested help from Aristagoras, the tyrant of the Ionian city-state of Miletus. Aristagoras agreed because he planned to seize control of Naxos. But instead of protecting Naxos, he asked the Persian governor Artaphernes for a navy. When Aristagoras later offended the Persian Admiral Megabates, he informed Naxos of Aristagoras? treachery.

Aristagoras? forces were beaten, and now he owed the Persian Governor Artaphernes for the damaged ships. He also had alienated Megabates. To extricate himself from his troubles, Aristagoras persuaded other Ionian city-states to rebel against their Persian leaders. The Persian Wars had begun.

The Ionian Rebellion

Aristagoras and his city-state of Miletus requested support from Sparta, but the Spartan king refused. But Athens sent a fleet of twenty Athenian warships, plus five warships from Eretria. Other Ionian city-states joined the rebellion. Marching together, the Athenians and the other armies captured and burned Sardis, one of the four capital cities of the Persian Empire.

After Sardis burned to the ground, the combined Greek forces retreated to Ephesus. The Persians caught up with them and defeated the city. The Athenians went home, abandoning the Ionian Greeks? to the wrath of their Persian enemies. Darius the Great, King of Persia, slaughtered all the inhabitants of the rebellious Ionian city-states. Then he demanded that Athens and the other Greek city-states submit to him. Darius used their refusal as an excuse to declare war on Greece. By conquering Greece, the Persians would attain absolute world power.

The Battle of Marathon

In 490 bc, Darius the Great launched a navy of 600 warships carrying 25,000 soldiers. The armada landed at Marathon, twenty-six miles north of Athens. The Athenians dispatched their best runner, Pheidippides, to beg help from Sparta, but the Spartans refused. Ten thousand Hoplites marched out of Athens under the command of Miltiades.

MILTIADES

Miltiades was the ideal choice to command the Hoplite warriors. In 516 bc, he had been a tyrant of the city-state of Chersonese and a vassal of the Persian King Darius the Great. Miltiades had even served Darius in his expedition against the Scythians in 513 bc, but then fought against the Persians in the Ionian rebellion.

When the Ionians were defeated, Miltiades fled to Athens where he achieved the rank of general. Because he knew how the Persians fought, he was selected to command the Athenian forces being sent to Marathon. In a brilliant maneuver, Miltiades led a surprise attack at sunrise, outmaneuvered the Persians, trapped them, and slaughtered 6,400 of them. The Greeks lost only 192 men.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Pheidippides, a Greek soldier, ran to Athens, a distance of twenty-six miles, with the good news of the victory at Marathon. On his arrival, he cried Nenikakamen or ?we were victorious.? Some say that Pheidippides then died of exhaustion, but he did not.

The day after the Athenians beat the Persians at Marathon, two thousand Spartan soldiers showed up.

THEMISTOCLES

The Athenian Admiral Themistocles feared a second attack and urged the Athenians to build two hundred trireme warships. The Athenians had just struck a mine containing two and one-half tons of silver. They wanted to use the newfound wealth for each Athenian citizen. To acquire the needed funds to build the warships, Themistocles told a lie. He claimed that the nearby island of Aegina was planning to attack Athens. Believing the lie, the Athenians used the silver to build the fleet.

Darius the Great returned to Persia and began planning an all-out attack against the Greeks. Before he could put his plans in motion, he had to crush a revolt in Egypt. When Darius died, he left the conquering of Greece and the pursuit of world domination to his son Xerxes, the next great Persian King.

The Battle of

Thermopylae

THE MASTERMIND

BEHIND THE PLAN

The Greeks knew the Persians would return. Thirty-one city-states met twice, in the autumn of 481 bc and in the spring of 480 bc, at the Isthmus of Corinth. It was the Athenian statesman and Admiral Themistocles who lied to the Athenians to get them to build the 200 warships and it was he who devised a ?delaying plan? at a narrow mountain pass at Thermopylae 85 miles northwest of Athens.

This plan included the King of Sparta, Leonidas, and his 300 Spartan warriors to hold the pass at Thermopylae as long as they could. This strategy at Thermopylae would give Themistocles and his 200 warships time to position them at the Artemisium Straight to prevent the Persian fleet from surrounding Leonidas and his men. Plus, the Athenians needed time to evacuate the people of Athens to the island of Salamis.

XERXES WALKS ON WATER

King Xerxes spent years preparing his campaign to burn Athens and conquer the Greek mainland. His forces included 800 warships and 300,000 soldiers. At the Hellespont, a mile-wide waterway stretching from Asia to Europe, Xerxes built a bridge of seven hundred pontoon boats.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Each boat of Xerxes? bridge was anchored to the bottom of the sea and they were all tethered together by flax linen and papyrus cables. Planks were laid across the boats for the soldiers to march across.

To survive the Persian assault, the Greek city-states, for the first time, were forced to join together in their defense.

At Thermopylae in 480 BC, the unstoppable Persian army met the Spartans in what continues to be, millennia later, one of the last great stands in all history.

LEONIDAS AND THE 300

Under the leadership of the Spartan King Leonidas, a contingent of 300 Spartans and 7,000 Thespian Greeks soldiers made their way to the pass at Thermopylae, between the Aegean Sea and 5,000-foot Mt. Kallidhromon (?hot gates?). The Spartans were armed with the Hoplon (shield), the Corinthian Helmut, Lamellar armor, the Dory (spear), and the Xiphos (straight sword).

DID YOU KNOW IT: Xerxes and his 300,000 soldiers arrived at Thermopylae in August, 480 bc. His ambassador met with Leonidas and said, ?Be prepared to die, our arrows will block out the sun.?

A brave Spartan named Dienekes replied, ?Then we will have our battle in the shade!?

Day 1

The Spartans and other Greek soldiers waited for the Persians who smashed into the Spartan wall with ten thousand soldiers ? one million pounds of bronze, wood, and muscle. The vastly outnumbered Spartans held firm.

The Persians retreated and rushed again. This ebb and flow, a battle pulse, continued throughout the day. Ten thousand Persians perished. The Spartans annihilated the Persians.

In the Artemisian Straits, Themistocles once again demonstrated his military brilliance by attacking the larger Persian fleet in the afternoon. By waiting until the late afternoon, Themistocles minimized his casualties since fighting ended with the setting of the sun.

Day 2

King Xerxes sent his Immortals, the greatest fighting force on the earth, into the Thermopylae pass. When one Immortal died, another immediately stepped forward to replace him, hence their name. They were also called the ?Silent Ones? because they never spoke. A hood, called a tiara, covered their heads with a black cloth made of translucent material covered their faces.

The Immortals marched forward and stopped. While they remained silent, the Spartans yelled and cursed, banging their spears on their shields. The Immortals charged the Spartan wall, but it was immovable. The battle pulses continued until the day ended with the slaughter of 10,000 Immortals. The Immortals were no longer the greatest fighting force in the world.

Xerxes was stunned that 20,000 of his unbeatable soldiers died at the hands of a bunch of upstart Greeks. And on the sea, Themistocles had won another battle. Xerxes needed a plan to turn the tide against the Greeks.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Xerxes? solution was near at hand. Ephialtes, a Greek traitor, led 10,000 Immortals through a secret pass, Anopaea, which ran behind Leonidas? army. Leonidas posted a thousand Phocian Greeks at the pass as his rearguard. But when the Immortals appeared, the Phocians deserted their post, fleeing to defend their own city-state.

When Leonidas heard of the desertion, he announced to his 7,000 soldiers that they could leave the battlefield and maintain their honor. Six thousand Thespians accepted his offer. The Oracle once told Leonidas that a great king would die for his people. Leonidas believed the Oracle was talking about him; so he stayed, acting as a bodyguard for the retreating Thespians. By staying in the pass, Leonidas would delay Xerxes one more day.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Six thousand Thespians left. One thousand stayed to fight. Not one Spartan left.

Day 3

Trapped in the pass with Persians charging from both sides, Leonidas and his men, the vaunted Phalanx, were forced to divide and fight both fronts. The Spartans fought courageously, fighting with spears until they broke, swinging their swords, and using anything else they could in their valiant struggle.

Persian arrows killed Leonidas. Four times, the Persians tried to carry away his body. But each time, the Spartans fought back. The surviving Spartans got the body of Leonidas in a corner and surrounded him. Finally Xerxes instructed his archers to blot out the sun with their arrows. They killed the Spartans and ended the battle.

DID YOU KNOW IT: When Xerxes walked the battlefield, he found Leonidas? body. Xerxes ordered Leonidas? head was cut off and put on a pole as a battle trophy.

Though Athens was doomed, Leonidas succeeded in keeping the world?s most formidable army in check for three days. Though the victor, Xerxes? losses were high.

The Battle

of Salamis

Two months after the Battle at Thermopylae, the Persians arrived in Athens. By then, the city had been evacuated. Xerxes burned the sacred temples and other buildings of the Acropolis. While the city burned, the Athenians obeyed the advice of the oracle to ?trust to their wooden walls? and fled to their ships.

Knowing that the gigantic Persian army could not be defeated on land, Themistocles tricked Xerxes into fighting a naval battle in the narrow strait between the Greek mainland and the island of Salamis. He sent a household slave to Xerxes with instructions to pretend betrayal. The slave told Xerxes that the Greeks were fleeing in terror. He encouraged the Persians to immediately attack so that he would have the element of surprise and certain victory.

Xerxes believed the supposed traitor and sent his fleet into the narrow straits of Salamis after Themistocles. Once the ships were caught in the narrow passage the Greeks inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persian navy. Xerxes watched in horror as the smaller Greek navy outmaneuvered his crowded fleet, ramming and sinking his ships.

DID YOU KNOW IT: Before the battle, the Greeks had inscribed messages on the rocks imploring the Ionian Greeks, who fought for the Persians, to stay out of the battle. But they did not heed the rocky messages.

The Battle of Salamis, the first major naval battle in history, broke Xerxes? determination. Though he succeeded in burning Athens, he had lost a third of his fleet and tens of thousands of his men. He returned to Persia, but left some of his army in Thessaly under the command of General Mardonius.

The Battle of Plataea

The Greeks had formed the largest Greek army every seen. The Athenians forced the Spartans to fight the Persians at Plataea, a place northwest of Athens. In 479 bc, the Persian general Mardonius was routed at the Battle of Plataea.

The Battle of Mycale

The Greek navy destroyed much of the retreating Persian navy at the battle of Mycale near Ionia.

THINK ABOUT IT: Xerxes? defeat was a turning point in world history. The Greeks placed an absolute limit on the Persian Empire?s westward expansion and emerged from the war with renewed pride. Instead of separate city-states, they developed a sense of nationalism that developed into a democracy. Greek culture continued to thrive in the West. If the Persians had won, all history would have been altered. Alexander would not have been so great. The Romans would not have had an empire. There would not even be a Europe and the United States.

The unity of the Greek city-states didn?t last long. Sparta and Athens, the two great city-states that led the war against the Persians, soon turned against each other. The Battle of Marathon began a centuries-long epoch during which Athens asserted its claim to uniqueness on the basis of its achievements in the Persian Wars and its cultural superiority.

READ ABOUT IT

The Archaic Greeks

A. Jones, Athenian Democracy (London, 1957); A.M. Snodgrass, Archaic Greece (London, 1980); A.T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire (Chicago, 1948); B. Strauss, The Battle of Salamis (Simon & Schuster, 2005); C. Starr, The Economic and Social Growth of Early Greece, 800-500 B.C. (Oxford, 1977); D. Kagan, Pericles and the Birth of Democracy (New York, 1991); E. Bradford, Thermopylae: The Battle For The West (Da Capo Press, 2004); J. Curtis, Ancient Persia (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); J. Boardman, The Greeks Overseas, rev. ed. (Baltimore, 1980); J.F. McGlew, Tyranny and Political Culture in Ancient Greece (Ithaca, NY, 1993); J.M. Cook, The Persian Empire (New York, 1983); M. Grant, The Rise of the Greeks (London, 1987); P.A. Cartledge, Sparta and Laconia: A Regional History, 1300-362 B.C. (London, 1979) and Spartan Reflections (Berkeley, CA, 2001); P.B. Manville, The Origin of Citizenship in Ancient Athens (Princeton, NJ, 1990); P. Green, The Greco-Persian Wars (Berkeley, CA, 1996); P.J. Rhodes, The Athenian Empire (Oxford, 1985); R. Osborne, Demos (New York, 1985); S. Pressfield, Gates of Fire: An Epic Novel of the Battle of Thermopylae (Bantam, 2005); V.D. Hanson, A War Like No Other: How the Athenians and Spartans Fought the Peloponnesian War (Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2006); The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece (University of California Press, 2009); W. Burkert, The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1992); and W. Forrest, A History of Sparta, 950-121 B.C., 2nd ed. (London, 1980),







UNIT #2 Video Presentations
1. Lesson #4 The Archaic Age Part 1

http://websflash.valenciacollege.edu/videoPlayer.html?appl=Humanities&inst=HUM2220&vid=mp4:130411-05GREE


2. Lesson #5 The Archaic Age Part 2

http://websflash.valenciacollege.edu/videoPlayer.html?appl=Humanities&inst=HUM2220&vid=mp4:130411-06GREE


3. Lesson #4 The Arcahic Age Part 3


http://websflash.valenciacollege.edu/videoPlayer.html?appl=Humanities&inst=HUM2220&vid=mp4:130411-07GREE

4. Lesson #6 The Archaic Age Part 4


http://websflash.valenciacollege.edu/videoPlayer.html?appl=Humanities&inst=HUM2220&vid=mp4:130411-08GREE

5. Lesson #7 The Archaic Age Part 5


http://websflash.valenciacollege.edu/videoPlayer.html?appl=Humanities&inst=HUM2220&vid=mp4:130411-09GREE
everithing has to come from this lectures nothing from out side sources