At the extreme side, the September 11 attacks and various Islamist violence perpetrated against civilians in the last two decades is an example of how violence and conflict can be justified in religious terms. Osama bin Laden and other al-Qaeda leaders often quote from the Qur'an and refer to the West as "Crusaders," emphasizing the religious significance of the struggle they conduct (Lincoln; Juergensmeyer). Historical circumstances may also dictate the totally pacifist manifestations of Islam. An example is Abdul Ghaffar Khan in India, also known as the "Frontier Gandhi," a close associate of Gandhi in non-violent struggle against British rule. Ghaffar Khan was not a minority figure but garnered the support of a hundred thousand official followers and even a greater number of sympathizers (Gandhi).

"Violent ideas and images are not the monopoly of any single religion," Juergensmeyer explains. "Virtually every major religious tradition -- Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, Sikh...
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