Germany was punished, rather than rehabilitated. Historic grievances still existed between many of the prevailing European powers, such as France and Germany. After World War I, the United States retreated to isolationism and did not provide either strength or a mediating force upon the warring European powers. During World War II, Europe was divided by war and the only unity that existed, such as the alliance between England, the U.S., and Russia, were based upon expediency, not upon shared values that could continue in a time of peace.

Ash's essay was written in 1996, when much of Europe was still in disarray after the breakdown of the Soviet empire. One wonders if he would still agree with his contention: "no continent is externally more ill-defined, internally more diverse, or historically more disorderly. Yet no continent has produced more schemes for its own orderly unification" (Ash 2). Ash has a point...
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